Introduction
The director of the education department of a large American Indian tribe in northeastern Oklahoma related to me recently an informal and unpublished study carried out by a former superintendent of Bell School in Adair County in Oklahoma. The school is a small, rural, PK-8, and dependent district with a student population that is almost 100% Native American. A few years ago the superintendent surveyed fourth graders as to what they wanted to be when they grew up. Their answers ranged from teachers to professional athletes to firemen and cowboys. When these students were asked the same question four years later as eighth graders, their responses were mostly limited to one of two; chicken pullers at the nearby Tyson Foods facility or line workers at the Mrs. Smith’s pie and cake factory in Stilwell. This startled and concerned me, and coupled with Native American student drop-out rates and tendencies to not attend or complete college (especially in STEM majors), set me to investigating the role of science education in addressing this dilemma. In fact, Native American students are the least represented group in STEM majors and careers, both in sheer numbers as well as proportionally (Demmert, 2001).
My personal experience after attending the summer workshop at Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History at the University of Oklahoma two years ago was that my students (mostly Native American) responded very well to inquiry-based science instruction in the form of learning cycles. I witnessed greater student enthusiasm for and achievement in science in my 3-8th grade classes, and many more “light bulb” or “Ah-Ha!” moments during the Concept Development and Expansion/Application phases. This was especially true when we could relate a concept to something from the students’ real-world environment and interests, including sports, cars, etc. In fact, it was this success in my classroom that prompted me to apply to the PhD program at OU in ILAC-Science Education, so I could help ”spread the word” and develop programs and train other teachers. Of course, the research indicates ALL students tend to learn better with this teaching approach, so I am faced with the question of whether Native students are somehow uniquely suited for this teaching approach, or vice-versa. My thoughts at this point are admittedly scattered, so I am aggressively pursuing all avenues of information concerning science education, indigenous science and educational perspectives, perceptions and misconceptions of science and scientists, socioeconomic status, opportunities for informal learning, cross-cultural evaluation instruments, and so on. I am perusing the literature, consulting with others in the field, and generally trying to become as informed as possible about Native American culture, education, and science and any possible relationship with inquiry-based science instruction, as well as science education in general.
The director of the education department of a large American Indian tribe in northeastern Oklahoma related to me recently an informal and unpublished study carried out by a former superintendent of Bell School in Adair County in Oklahoma. The school is a small, rural, PK-8, and dependent district with a student population that is almost 100% Native American. A few years ago the superintendent surveyed fourth graders as to what they wanted to be when they grew up. Their answers ranged from teachers to professional athletes to firemen and cowboys. When these students were asked the same question four years later as eighth graders, their responses were mostly limited to one of two; chicken pullers at the nearby Tyson Foods facility or line workers at the Mrs. Smith’s pie and cake factory in Stilwell. This startled and concerned me, and coupled with Native American student drop-out rates and tendencies to not attend or complete college (especially in STEM majors), set me to investigating the role of science education in addressing this dilemma. In fact, Native American students are the least represented group in STEM majors and careers, both in sheer numbers as well as proportionally (Demmert, 2001).
My personal experience after attending the summer workshop at Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History at the University of Oklahoma two years ago was that my students (mostly Native American) responded very well to inquiry-based science instruction in the form of learning cycles. I witnessed greater student enthusiasm for and achievement in science in my 3-8th grade classes, and many more “light bulb” or “Ah-Ha!” moments during the Concept Development and Expansion/Application phases. This was especially true when we could relate a concept to something from the students’ real-world environment and interests, including sports, cars, etc. In fact, it was this success in my classroom that prompted me to apply to the PhD program at OU in ILAC-Science Education, so I could help ”spread the word” and develop programs and train other teachers. Of course, the research indicates ALL students tend to learn better with this teaching approach, so I am faced with the question of whether Native students are somehow uniquely suited for this teaching approach, or vice-versa. My thoughts at this point are admittedly scattered, so I am aggressively pursuing all avenues of information concerning science education, indigenous science and educational perspectives, perceptions and misconceptions of science and scientists, socioeconomic status, opportunities for informal learning, cross-cultural evaluation instruments, and so on. I am perusing the literature, consulting with others in the field, and generally trying to become as informed as possible about Native American culture, education, and science and any possible relationship with inquiry-based science instruction, as well as science education in general.
Potential research questions include:
Can inquiry-based science instruction combined with informal learning opportunities and greater emphasis on Native culture and language enhance students’ scientific reasoning ability and likelihood to enter STEM related majors and careers?
Will intervention in the form of after-school, inquiry-based science activities with traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) and scientist mentoring positively affect students’ knowledge of science content, and their perceptions and misconceptions of science and scientists?
What is the nature of middle school students’ scientific reasoning ability, knowledge of science content, and perceptions and misconceptions of science and scientists in northeast Oklahoma rural, town, suburban, and urban schools?
Literature Review
The former superintendent at my previous school in NE Oklahoma believed for years that Native students tended to be active, right-brained learners who responded well to learning through tactile, kinesthetic, auditory, and visual experiences. He developed a “psychomotor” approach to learning for younger students that coupled activity with concepts, such as counting in both English and Cherokee while jumping rope. Partially because of this, his school was designated by the U. S. Department of Education as a National School of Excellence, and also received the James Madison Elementary School Award for Outstanding Curriculum in 1988 (Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 1995). I attempted to connect my own classroom experiences with these and other observations from my experience and the literature to link Native culture and learning styles to the utilization of learning cycles in the classroom (Aikenhead & Jegede, 1999). For instance, traditional American Indian viewpoints of the world and environment are holistic, emphasizing the interconnectedness of everything, living and non-living. This may align with the idea of organization within the Application/Expansion phase of a learning cycle, as the active learning tendencies of Native students may correlate to the Exploration and Concept Development phases. I realize again that all students tend to learn better using this teaching approach, but it would be interesting if for cultural or other reasons Native American students were particularly suited for socially-based constructivist teaching and learning, or even transactional philosophies. For instance, traditionally Native children learned about the world around them by actively exploring it on their on, as well as through the passing down of knowledge by oral story-telling and hands-on instruction (Cajete, 1999). Traditional Ecological Knowledge or TEK has been recognized as a “sub-culture” within the larger culture of science itself and its intersection with classic Western science can be used to promote Native learning instead of hindering it (Snively & Corsiglia, 2000). Another point of view is that indigenous science knowledge, instead of being “swallowed up” by the Standard Account, is better off as a different kind of knowledge that can be valued for its own merits and play a vital role in the science education of Native American students (Cobern & Loving, 2001).
Research Methods
One of my professional goals is to possibly work in the education department of an American Indian tribe, and help to institute and develop inquiry-based instructional programs, especially in science, in the schools within their tribal boundaries. Research has shown that inquiry-based professional development may enhance teachers’ understanding of Piagetian models of intelligence and increase their use of appropriate constructivist approaches in the classroom (Marek, et al., 1990 & 1994). I also believe that encouraging more informal learning opportunities both at home and in school should be a priority, including museums and other field trips, chess, speech, and science fairs (Gerber, et al., 2001), as well as emphasizing Native culture and language. Students need to actively construct their own knowledge with the teacher’s guidance, engage in varied activities both in and out of school, and maintain their Native identity (Gilliland, 1995). That is, they need to realize that they can “be Cherokee”, for instance, and yet also be successful in school and professionally in the larger world outside their usually rural home environments (Nelson-Barber & Estrin, 1995). In order to gauge the effectiveness of this initiative over time I would need a baseline of data, that is, an idea of where students in the affected schools stood prior to implementation of more inquiry and informal learning. I am considering a wide array of instruments, including course grades, drop-out rates, end of instruction exams and other state and national standardized tests, the Draw-A-Scientist Test (Chambers, 1983), the Informal Learning Assay (Gerber, et al, 2001), and tests of scientific reasoning ability and content. I am also considering the development of one or more instruments that consider cultural factors in these types of evaluations. I also have an excellent opportunity to get another perspective on science education and other issues for indigenous (and migrant) populations when I visit UPAEP in Puebla, Mexico for five weeks this summer. Another possibility is working in conjunction with the Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History’s education department and staging interventions in the after-school programs of selected districts involving informal learning opportunities. These may consist of commercial curricula and could be evaluated with a pre- and post-test methodology in order to gauge their effectiveness in terms of student interest in science, scientific reasoning ability, and misconceptions and/or perceptions of science and scientists. This may be particularly effective if actual scientists are participants and mentors in the programs.
References:
Aikenhead, G. S., & Jegede, O. J. (1999). Cross-cultural science education: a cognitive explanation of a cultural phenomenon. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36(3), 269-287.
This article explains cognitive conflicts arising from cultural differences as collateral learning and demonstrates the efficacy of reanalyzing interpretive data published in other articles. It attempts to provide new intellectual tools for teaching "science for all".
Cajete, G. A. (1999). Igniting the sparkle: an indigenous science education model (1 Ed.). Asheville NC: Kivaki Press Inc.
This book describes a model of science education specifically tailored to the needs of Native American students that draws on traditional methods of learning and knowing.
Chambers, D. W. (1983). Stereotypic images of the scientist: the draw-a-scientist test
Science Education, 67(2), 255-265.
The stereotypic image of the scientist appears in grade school and advances as students age. DAST is easy to administer and does require a verbal response; it also may correlate to other measures.
Cobern, W. J., & Loving, C. C. (2001). Defining "science" in a multicultural world: implications for science education. Science Education, 85(1), 50-67.
This paper argues that indigenous knowledge, instead of being swallowed up by the "Standard Account", is better off as a different kind of knowledge that can be valued for its own merits and play a vital role in science education, particularly for Native American students.
Demmert, W. G. (2001). Improving Academic Performance among Native American Students: A Review of the Research Literature. Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools.
This is a review of the literature spanning several decades concerned with issues of Native American education. It includes several subject areas and emphasizes the need to maintain indigenous culture and language in the classroom.
Gerber, B. L., Cavallo, A. M. L., & Marek, E. A. (2001). Relationships among informal learning environments, teaching procedures and scientific reasoning ability. International Journal of Science Education, 23(5), 535-549.
This study showed a separate positive relationship between informal learning experiences and scientific reasoning ability in children and inquiry-based instruction and scientific reasoning ability with no interaction effects.
Gerber, B. L., Marek, E. A., & Cavallo, A. M. L. (2001). Development of an informal learning opportunities assay. International Journal of Science Education, 23(6), 569-583.
This paper documents the development and verification of the Informal Learning Opportunities Assay (ILOA) to measure learning outside the formal classroom environment.
Gilliland, H. (1995). Teaching the Native American. Third Edition. (3 Ed.). Dubuque IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co.
This book describes teaching approaches effective for indigenous students, including incorporation of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK).
Marek, E. A., Cowan, C. C., & Cavallo, A. M. L. (1994). Students' misconceptions about diffusion: how can they be eliminated? The American Biology Teacher, 56(2), 74-77.
This study showed that students taught through inquiry displayed fewer misconceptions of science ideas than those taught in an expository manner.
Marek, E. A., Eubanks, C., & Gallaher, T. H. (1990). Teachers' understanding and the use of the learning cycle. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27(9), 821-834.
This study showed that teachers with a sound understanding of the Piagetian model of intelligence were more likely to effectively implement learning cycle curricula than those that did not.
Marek, E. A., Haack, C., & McWhirter, L. (1994). Long-term use of learning cycles following in-service institutes. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 5(2), 48-55.
The study reported here examined the long-term implementation of learning cycle curricula introduced in National Science Foundation (NSF) sponsored institutes delivered in the 1980s.
Marek, E. A., & Laubach, T. (2007). Bridging the gap between theory and practice: A success story from science education. In M. Gordon & T. V. O'Brien (Eds.), Bridging Theory and Practice in Teacher Education. Netherlands: Sense Publishers.
This book chapter describes an example of a successful partnership between a Midwestern university and a nearby school district in terms of developing and implementing an inquiry-based science instruction program over several years.
Nelson-Barber, S., & Estrin, E. T. (1995). Bringing Native American perspectives to mathematics and science teaching. Theory into Practice, 34(3), 174-184.
This is a discussion and comparison of traditional Native American views of science and mathematics and how they may be incorporated into the modern classroom.
Snively, G., & Corsiglia, J. (2000). Discovering indigenous science: implications for science education. Science Education, 85(1), 6-34.
This paper describes how traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) can be integrated into the modern classroom as one of several scientific viewpoints and can help alleviate misunderstandings of students at the "border crossing" of TEK and classic Western science.
Southwest Educational Development Laboratory (1995). Maryetta School: the center of a rural community and a case study of leadership and school improvement. Issues about Change, 5(1), 5-27.
This is a description of Maryetta School; a small, rural, pk-8, dependent NE Oklahoma school district with a low socioeconomic and mostly Native American population. It includes a discussion of the development and purpose of the school's psychomotor program.
This article explains cognitive conflicts arising from cultural differences as collateral learning and demonstrates the efficacy of reanalyzing interpretive data published in other articles. It attempts to provide new intellectual tools for teaching "science for all".
Cajete, G. A. (1999). Igniting the sparkle: an indigenous science education model (1 Ed.). Asheville NC: Kivaki Press Inc.
This book describes a model of science education specifically tailored to the needs of Native American students that draws on traditional methods of learning and knowing.
Chambers, D. W. (1983). Stereotypic images of the scientist: the draw-a-scientist test
Science Education, 67(2), 255-265.
The stereotypic image of the scientist appears in grade school and advances as students age. DAST is easy to administer and does require a verbal response; it also may correlate to other measures.
Cobern, W. J., & Loving, C. C. (2001). Defining "science" in a multicultural world: implications for science education. Science Education, 85(1), 50-67.
This paper argues that indigenous knowledge, instead of being swallowed up by the "Standard Account", is better off as a different kind of knowledge that can be valued for its own merits and play a vital role in science education, particularly for Native American students.
Demmert, W. G. (2001). Improving Academic Performance among Native American Students: A Review of the Research Literature. Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools.
This is a review of the literature spanning several decades concerned with issues of Native American education. It includes several subject areas and emphasizes the need to maintain indigenous culture and language in the classroom.
Gerber, B. L., Cavallo, A. M. L., & Marek, E. A. (2001). Relationships among informal learning environments, teaching procedures and scientific reasoning ability. International Journal of Science Education, 23(5), 535-549.
This study showed a separate positive relationship between informal learning experiences and scientific reasoning ability in children and inquiry-based instruction and scientific reasoning ability with no interaction effects.
Gerber, B. L., Marek, E. A., & Cavallo, A. M. L. (2001). Development of an informal learning opportunities assay. International Journal of Science Education, 23(6), 569-583.
This paper documents the development and verification of the Informal Learning Opportunities Assay (ILOA) to measure learning outside the formal classroom environment.
Gilliland, H. (1995). Teaching the Native American. Third Edition. (3 Ed.). Dubuque IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co.
This book describes teaching approaches effective for indigenous students, including incorporation of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK).
Marek, E. A., Cowan, C. C., & Cavallo, A. M. L. (1994). Students' misconceptions about diffusion: how can they be eliminated? The American Biology Teacher, 56(2), 74-77.
This study showed that students taught through inquiry displayed fewer misconceptions of science ideas than those taught in an expository manner.
Marek, E. A., Eubanks, C., & Gallaher, T. H. (1990). Teachers' understanding and the use of the learning cycle. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27(9), 821-834.
This study showed that teachers with a sound understanding of the Piagetian model of intelligence were more likely to effectively implement learning cycle curricula than those that did not.
Marek, E. A., Haack, C., & McWhirter, L. (1994). Long-term use of learning cycles following in-service institutes. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 5(2), 48-55.
The study reported here examined the long-term implementation of learning cycle curricula introduced in National Science Foundation (NSF) sponsored institutes delivered in the 1980s.
Marek, E. A., & Laubach, T. (2007). Bridging the gap between theory and practice: A success story from science education. In M. Gordon & T. V. O'Brien (Eds.), Bridging Theory and Practice in Teacher Education. Netherlands: Sense Publishers.
This book chapter describes an example of a successful partnership between a Midwestern university and a nearby school district in terms of developing and implementing an inquiry-based science instruction program over several years.
Nelson-Barber, S., & Estrin, E. T. (1995). Bringing Native American perspectives to mathematics and science teaching. Theory into Practice, 34(3), 174-184.
This is a discussion and comparison of traditional Native American views of science and mathematics and how they may be incorporated into the modern classroom.
Snively, G., & Corsiglia, J. (2000). Discovering indigenous science: implications for science education. Science Education, 85(1), 6-34.
This paper describes how traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) can be integrated into the modern classroom as one of several scientific viewpoints and can help alleviate misunderstandings of students at the "border crossing" of TEK and classic Western science.
Southwest Educational Development Laboratory (1995). Maryetta School: the center of a rural community and a case study of leadership and school improvement. Issues about Change, 5(1), 5-27.
This is a description of Maryetta School; a small, rural, pk-8, dependent NE Oklahoma school district with a low socioeconomic and mostly Native American population. It includes a discussion of the development and purpose of the school's psychomotor program.
